CHAPTER 6: NATURAL RESOURCES ENDOWMENT AND KEY ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES

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Oceans and Coastal Resources

Characterization of the U.S, Coastal Areas and Resources⁷

Atlantic Northeast

Along the Northeast Atlantic coast, rocky tidal shorelines and islands are the dominant geologic feature. Estuaries are generally small. Boston, Massachusetts is the only major urban area Forested areas predominate in this region. Harvesting is allowed in 83 percent of the shellfish growing areas (approximately 3,120 square kilometers). Over 325,000 metric tons of seafood valued at over $542 million were landed in the region in 1990. Lobsters, scallops and cod are the commercially important species. The Northeast Atlantic region has the fewest point sources of pollution and the lowest rate of pesticide application of all the regions.

Middle Atlantic

The Middle Atlantic is the most densely populated coastal region of the United States. It contains the greatest percentage of urban land, and includes New York City and Washington, D.C. Nevertheless, forest and agricultural land uses dominate in this region. Sixty percent of the wetlands in this region are found around the Chesapeake and Delaware bays. Approximately 84 percent of the 19,500 square kilometers of classified shellfish growing areas are approved for harvesting. About 550,000 metric tons of seafood worth approximately $310 million were landed in this region in 1990. Major fisheries of the region include the sea scallop and estuarine-dependent blue crab. Estuaries in this area provide important habitat for striped bass and bluefish.

Southeast Atlantic

The Southeast Atlantic coast is characterized by two shorelines: lagoons fronted by barrier islands and low-lying marshy shoreline formations. The population density varies significantly from sparsely populated areas of North and South Carolina to high densities in Florida. Extensive forests cover the landscape adjoining several estuaries, such as the Abermarle/Pamlico Sounds. Agriculture is also a major land use. This region contains the second highest amount of wetlands of all the regions. Harvesting is allowed in over 75 percent of the classified shellfish waters. Over 131,000 metric tons of seafood valued at $169 million were landed in the region in 1990. Estuarine-dependant species, including shrimp, crabs and menhaden accounted for over half of the harvest. Municipal wastewater treatment plants and pesticides applied to agricultural lands are the major sources of coastal pollution.

Gulf of Mexico

Large shallow estuaries dominate the Gulf of Mexico coast. They provide important habitats for many estuarine-dependant living resources. Abundant wetlands are found in this area Significant wetland losses are occurring due to natural erosion, accelerated erosion caused by river diversions, damming and channelilzation, and pollution. Conversion to agriculture has been a major cause of loss of wetlands in the Mississippi delta and Florida Everglades. Agricultural and forestry activities are the most prevalent land uses. Although only five percent of the region is considered urban, the Gulf of Mexico region is the second fastest growing coastal area. Most of the region's population is concentrated in Florida and Texas. Approximately 42 percent of classified shellfish-growing waters are open for harvesting. In 1990, the Gulf of Mexico region landed almost BOO metric tons of seafood valued at $640 million. Shrimp landings are second to menhaden in volume, but accounted for more than half of the value of all landings. The Gulf of Mexico has more point sources of pollution than any other region. Over half of these point sources are associated with the petrochemical industry. Farmers in the Gulf of Mexico apply more pesticides to their crops than in any other coastal region.

Pacific

The Pacific region has the second highest percentage of urban land. Forests are the major land use along the coast and estuaries north of San Francisco Bay. Next to the Northeast Atlantic coast, the Pacific has the fewest point sources of pollution and the lowest amount of pesticide application of coastal regions. The Pacific region contains the least amount of coastal wetlands. Harvesting is limited in more than 70 percent of the approved shellfish-growing waters. This region landed 310,000 metric tons of seafood valued at $315 million in 1990 in this region. Over half of the total value is from anadromous salmon fisheries.

Alaska

Alaska has two distinct types of coastlines: deep glacial fjords and wide dendritic fluvial plains. Coastal hays and rivers provide important habitats for major runs of anadramous fish, marine mammals and commercially sought species. Millions of seabirds nest and marine mammals haul out on numerous islands around the coast, Pacific cod, pollock and other trawl-caught species dominate fish landings in Alaska. In 1990, the fishing industry landed approximately 2.7 million metric tons of seafood products valued at over $1.5 thousand-million in Alaskan ports.

Hawaii

The Hawaiian islands, a chain of volcanic islands, rise from the seafloor in the tropical Pacific. Forested land dominates in Hawaii, and much of the coastline is undeveloped. The population is concentrated on Oahu, one of the eight major islands. Tourism is a major part of the economic base of the state. In 1990, over 6 million visitors generated over $9 thousand-million in the tourist industry. In 1990,1,300 metric tons of seafood valued at $6.5 million were landed in Hawaii.

Insular Areas of the Pacific and Caribbean

Insular areas under U.S. sovereignty or administration range from corallinefringed volcanic seamounts of American Samoa, Guam, Palau and the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana islands in the Pacific, to the U.S. Virgin Islands and Puerto Rico in the Caribbean. Approximately 30 percent of the U.S. EEZ lies in the insular areas. Fishing for tuna and nearshore reef species and tourism are important components of the economies of many Pacific islands. Tourism, light industry and petroleum refining are integral to the economic base of the U.S. Virgin Islands and Puerto Rico. chapter 3 on indigenous peoples gives a more detailed description of these insular areas.

Ocean Resources

Living Marine Resources

Over 20,000 species of fish and shellfish inhabit marine, estuarine and freshwater ecosystems in the waters of the United States. Of these, approximately 300 species are fished for commercial and recreational purposes. Many species are enjoyed in their environment for their aesthetic value.

Commercial Fisheries. During the 1960s and 1970s, foreign distant water fleets exploited highly productive waters off the United States such as the Georges Bank region. Foreign factory freezer trawlers revolutionized deepwater commercial fishing. In 1976, Congress enacted the Magnuson Fishery Conservation and Management Act. Through eight regional fishery management councils, fisheries resources within the EEZ are managed for their maximum sustained and optimum yield. States regulate the nearshore fisheries within their coastal waters.

Since 1976, the United States harvesting capacity has increased allowing a higher proportion of the maximum sustainable and optimum yield within the U.S. EEZ to be harvested the U.S. fishing fleet. For certain fisheries, however, the average catch per unit effort has declined. Reasons for these declines vary. Over-exploitation of target and non-target species, coastal habitat alteration, and point and non-point source pollution discharges have had major impacts on fishery resources.

Total landings and their value have increased substantially since 1970. Exhibit 6d.3 illustrates the trends in total landings and their value from 1970 to 1989. Almost 5 million metric tons of edible fish and shellfish and industrial fishery products were landed by U.S. commercial fishing operators in 1990. The total value of this harvest was worth $3.89 thousand-million. This compares with landings of 2.2 million metric tons of fish and shellfish valued at $602 million in 1970. In 1970, Americans consumed approximately 5.13 kilos of edible seafood per person. By 1990, consumption had increased to 7.2 kilos per person.

Marine species comprise 85 percent of the commercial, non-aquaculture catch of seafood in the United States. In 1990, 1.44 million metric tons of pollock were landed from the Bering Sea and Gulf of Alaska. This catch alone accounted for approximately 30 percent of the total commercial landings and was valued at $272 million. The other important fisheries landings were: 900,000 metric tons of menhaden valued at $94 million from the South Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico, 330,000 metric tons of salmon from the Pacific Northwest and Alaska valued at $612 million; and 157,000 metric tons of shrimp from the Gulf of Mexico valued at $491 million.⁸

^{Exhibit 6d.3}

^{U.S. Commercial Landings}

A 1989 survey of commercial fisheries resources of the United States concluded that of 81 commercially harvested stocks (i.e., species or species groups):⁹

• 14 are over-exploited and another 36 are fully exploited;
• 10 of 14 over-exploited stocks would require five to 20 years to recover if fishing stopped altogether, but commercial fishing continues in eight of these 10 fisheries;
• Nearly 30 percent of all species and stocks studied have experienced population declines since 1977;
• Insufficient information exists on the status of 29 percent of U.S. fisheries.

Aquaculture. Although the U.S. aquaculture industry is relatively new, it is expanding rapidly. Aquaculture of some species is especially important in certain U.S. regions. Catfish, trout and salmon are among the most valuable species cultured in the United States. In 1989, 373.5 million kilos, worth $740 million of aquacultured species were produced by the U.S. aquaculture industry.¹⁰

Marine Recreational Fisheries. Fishing is one of the most popular recreational activities in the United States. In 1990, approximately 143 million kilos of marine fish were caught during an estimated 39.8 million fishing trips. Popular marine sportfish include bluefish, mahi mahi, spotted seatrout, sea bass, marlin, striped bass, red drum, weakfish, summer and winter flounder, sharks and Atlantic croaker in the Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico regions. Mackerel, smelt, striped bass, rockfish and flounder are species caught on the Pacific coast Most recreational fishing occurs within 16 kilometers of the shore. Although the number of marine recreational fishing trips has remained relatively constant, as Exhibit 6d.4 illustrates, the total annual catch has declined substantially since 1980.¹¹

^{Exhibit 6d.4}

^{U.S. Marine Recreational Fisheries}

Marine Mammals All marine mammals found in the waters or the United States are protected by the Marine Mammal Protection Act (MMPA). Ten species of large whales, 34 species of small cetaceans (porpoises and dolphins), 13 species of pinnipeds (seals, sea lions and walrus), and five other species (sea otters, polar bear. manatee and dugong) of marine mammals spend part or all of their time in waters of the United States and its insular areas. Population levels of manatees, Hawaiian monk seals, northern right whales, humpback whales, California sea otters, Stellar sea lions and the Gulf of California harbor porpoises are much lower than historical levels and have been designated as endangered or threatened.¹² The MMPA, enacted in 1972, was the first national law to prohibit taking (defined as actual or attempted killing, hunting, capturing, harming or harassing) of marine mammals. The MMPA allows taking by permit for scientific research, public education, enhancing the survival or recovery of a species or stock, and by Alaska Natives for subsistence and handicraft purposes. Small numbers of marine mammals may also be taken incidental to commercial fishing activities and specified activities other than commercial fishing, if the federal government determines that such taking will have a negligible impact on the marine mammal species. Concerns that led Congress to enact the MMPA included: declining populations, particularly of large whales; calls for a global moratorium on commercial whaling; and the incidental capture of marine mammals by commercial tuna fishermen, particularly in the eastern tropical Pacific.¹³ The box on the next page highlights advances in the protection of marine mammal populations since enactment of the MMPA

Marine Turtles. The five species of sea turtles which are listed by the Endangered Species Act (ESA) as endangered or threatened are green, hawksbill, Kemp's ridley, leatherback and loggerhead Despite protection under the ESA, incidental capture in commercial shrimp trawls, loss of nesting habitat and marine pollution have prevented turtle populations from recovering Scientists have identified incidental capture of sea turtles in commercial shrimp trawls as the single most serious threat to population recovery of loggerhead and Kemp’s ridley turtles. In 1987, the federal government required commercial shrimp trawlers to use Turtle Excluder Devices (TED’s) to minimize the then-estimated annual loss of 50,000 sea turtles drowned when taken incidentally in shrimp nets. Since implementation of these regulations, the number of dead sea turtles washing ashore on beaches during shrimping season has dropped dramatically.¹⁴

Specially Protected Areas

The section on plants, animals and biodiversity addresses specially protected aquatic and terrestrial areas. Areas within U.S. maritime zones which are representative of various ecosystems have been set aside for the conservation of plant and animal species.

National Marine Sanctuaries.¹⁵ National Marine Sanctuaries range in size from less than 1 to over 2,600 square nautical miles (over 883,000 hectares). These sanctuaries harbor a diverse array of marine plants and animals, from huge whales to tiny brightly colored sea snails. In many cases, these protected waters provide a secure habitat for marine species close to extinction. The nine national marine sanctuaries represent distinct marine environments in temperate and tropical areas, such as nearshore, open water and benthic (or ocean floor) ecosystems. They are: Gulf of the Farallones (northern California); Channel Islands (southern California); Cordell Bank (northern California); Gray's Reef (Georgia coast); the MONITOR (North Carolina); Fagatele Bay (American Samoa); Florida Keys including Looe Key and Key Largo. Additional locations are in the process of being designated.

National Estuarine Research Reserves. ¹⁶ Currently, there are 19 National Estuarine Research Reserves (NEER) preserving approximately 120,000 hectares of estuarine waters and salt and freshwater wetlands. These areas are protected for support of long-term research. NERR sites are selected which represent biogeographical and typological ecosystems of U.S. mainland and trust territories. Four NERR's are located in the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean, eight on the Atlantic coast, one in the Great Lakes, and five in the Pacific. The most recent addition, the Chesapeake Bay National Estuarine Research Reserve in Virginia, was designated in June 1991. It protects nearly 1,200 hectares of wetland and upland habitat. Additional sites are currently being developed.¹⁷

National Pork Service. The National Park System has many holdings in coastal areas in the United States and its territories. These coastal areas not only provide spectacular scenery, but allow for conservation, protection and research of wildlife, plants, and natural and cultural resources. Coastal and riparian parks include: the Everglades (Florida), Channel Islands (southern California). Acadia National Park (Maine); Big Cypress National Preserve (Florida); Pu'uohonua 0 Honaunau (Hawaii); Buck Island Reef virgin Islands), and Fort Jefferson (Dry Tortugas, Florida) National Monuments; USS Arizona Memorial (Hawaii); Sitka National Historical Park (Alaska); Assateague Island (Virginia) and Point Reyes (California) National Seashores.¹⁸

National Wildlife Refuges. The National Wildlife Refuge System is a unique and highly diverse network of over 36 million hectares of lands and waters in the United States. Over 470 national wildlife refuges are managed to conserve and enhance populations of fish and wildlife and their habitats. There are over 150 coastal refuges that provide nursery areas for anadromous, estuarine and marine fish, habitat for nesting and wintering migratory waterfowl and seabirds, and the necessary environment for the enhancement of endangered or threatened species such as manatees. Some of these coastal refuges include: Yukon Delta (Alaska), San Juan Islands (Washington), Howland Island (U.S. Pacific insular area), Arkansas (Texas), Key West (Florida) and Chincoteague (Virginia).

Challenges: Ongoing and in the Future

Federal and state regulatory agencies are facing many challenges regarding the management and conservation of the nation's living marine resources and their habitats. Many are currently being addressed through various federal programs. These include: addressing the competition for resources among commercial, recreational and indigenous fishermen; improving the effectiveness of international fisheries relationships with foreign fishermen; reducing bycatch/incidental catch; improving predictability of stock assessments; improving compliance with fisheries management regulations; resolving conflicts between Marine Mammal Protection Act, Endangered Species Act and fisheries; rebuilding overfished marine fisheries; protecting living marine resource habitat; assessing the effects of climate change on living marine resources and their habitats; and improving the safety of seafood for human consumption.¹⁹

Non-Living Marine Resources

The continental shelves off the Atlantic, northwestern and southwestern Pacific (Alaska and California), and Gulf of Mexico coasts contain significant mineral and energy resources. The United States manages the minerals, natural gas and oil resources of the outer continental shelf (OCS) under the Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act (OCS LA). The OCSLA authorities leasing publicly owned offshore areas to private companies for environmentally sound extraction of sub-seabed mineral resources. Exploration and development may occur only after analysis of potential environmental impacts, compliance with federal environmental laws and compliance with state coastal-zone management plans. From 1973 to 1988, the federal government spent over $500 million dollars on studies relating to the effects of OCS development on the marine, coastal and human environments.²⁰

Oil anal Gas Deposits. The federal OCS encompasses approximately 560 million hectares Of this total, 13.2 million hectares were under lease to oil and gas exploration, development and production companies during 1989. In 1989, the OCS oil and gas program generated more than $2.9 thousand-million in production royalties and lease-related revenues for the federal government Approximately 135 thousand-million cubic meters of oil and 2.46 million-million cubic meters of natural gas have been produced from the OCS between 1954 to 1989. An additional 651.8 million cubic meters were produced from the states' waters during this period for a U.S. EEZ total of about 2 thousand-million cubic meters. Between 1971 and 1988, oil production from OCS wells averaged almost one million barrels per day. In 1972, the OCS supplied almost 14 percent of the U.S. production of natural gas and 12 percent of the oil produced. By 1989, the OCS supplied almost 24 percent of all natural gas produced in the U.S and more than 10 percent of the nation's oil production.²¹

Balancing development of oil and gas resources on the outer continental shelf with protecting the coastal and marine environments and their living resources has been controversial. In response to public concern over adverse environmental effects of OCS oil and gas activities, and in light of some uncertainties in the scientific analysis of potential ecological and social impacts of offshore development, in June 1990, President George Bush announced a delay on OCS leasing until after the year 2000 in many areas off California, Florida, the Pacific Northwest and the North Atlantic. The oil Pollution Act of 1990 initiated a comprehensive federal oil spill liability, compensation, prevention and response program. This act established a $1 thousand-million trust fund to improve prevention and cleanup of oil spills. The act includes monies for cleanup activities, improving the safety of marine transportation of oil and research. It also imposed a moratorium on oil and gas leasing off the North Carolina coast.

Mineral Deposits. Blanket deposits of sand and gravel, placer deposits containing gold, platinum, chromite and titanium, polymetallic sulfides containing copper, lead, zinc and other minerals, ferromanganese crusts and nodules, and thick beds of phosphorite Occur on the ocean floor in the U.S. EEZ. At present, there are no mining operations in the U.S EEZ; however, sand and gravel are dredged from the entrance to New York Harbor and sold for commercial use. Gold was mined in Alaskan state waters near the city of Nome from 1986 to 1990. Sand is also dredged Periodically from state coastal waters for beach nourishment.

ENDNOTES:

7. U.S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Ocean Service, Strategic Assessments Branch, Estuaries of the United States: Vital Statistics of a National Resource Base (Rockville, MD: October 1990), 79pp.

U.S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Ocean Service, Ocean Assessments Division (Rockville, MD), in cooperation with the U.S. Department of the Interior, National Wetlands Inventory, Fish and Wildlife Service, (Washington, D.C.), and the National Wetlands Research Center (Sidell, LA), Coastal Wetlands of the United States: An Accounting of a Valuable National Resource (February 1991), 59pp.

U.S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Ocean Service, Strategic Assessments Branch, The 1990 National Shellfish Register of Classified Estuarine Waters (Rockville, MD: November 1991), 100pp.

U.S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Marine Fisheries Service. Fisheries of the United States, 1990. Current Fishery Statistics, no.9000 (Silver Spring, MD.: May 1991), 11pp.

Hawaii Visitors Bureau, Research Department, Honolulu, Hawaii.

U.S. Department of the Interior, Office of Territorial and International Affairs (Washington, D.C.)

8. U.S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Marine Fisheries Service, Fisheries of the United States, 1990. Current Fishery Statistics, no.9000 (Silver Spring, MD: May 1991), 11pp.

9. National Fish and Wildlife Foundation, Needs Assessment of the National Marine Fisheries Service (January 1990), 315pp.

10. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service, Aqua-6, Aquaculture-Situation and Outlook Report, March 1991.

11. U.S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Marine Fisheries Service, Fisheries of the United States, 1990. Current Fishery Statistics3 no.9000 (Silver Spring, MD: May 1991), 11pp.

12. Marine Mammal Commission, Annual Report of the Marine Mammal Commission, Calendar Year 1990, A Report to Congress (January 1991), 270pp.

13. Ibid.

14. National Academy of Science, National Research Council, Decline of the Sea Turtles. Causes and Prevention National Academy Press: 1990), 259pp.

15. The Marine Protection, Research and Sanctuaries Act of 1972, Title III, authorizes the designation of certain areas of the marine environment which possess conservation, recreational, ecological, historical, research, educational or aesthetic qualities which should be conserved and managed as a marine sanctuary. It also authorizes study and designation of others.

16. The Coastal Zone Management Act of 1972 established the National Estuarine Research Reserves program which designates an area that is a representative estuarine ecosystem that is suitable for long-term research and designation. The designation of the area will serve to enhance public awareness and understanding of estuarine factors Additional areas may be designated in the future.

17. U.S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Ocean Service, Marine and Estuarine Management Division, Notional Estuarine Research Reserve System: Site Catalog (Washington, D.C.: 1990), 37pp.

18. U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, National Park System Map and Guide (1990).

19. U.S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Marine Fisheries Service, Strategic Plan of the National Marine Fisheries Service: Goals and Objectives (June 10, 1991), 21pp.

20. U.S. Department of the Interior, Minerals Management Service, The Offshore Environmental Studies Program (1973 - 1989):A Summary of Minerals Management Service Research Conducted on the U.S. Outer Continental Shelf, OCS Report MMS 90-0095 (1990), 104pp.

21. U.S. Department of the Interior, Minerals Management Service, Federal Offshore Statistics: 1989: Leasing, Exploration and Revenues, OCS Report MMS 90-0072 (1990), 104pp.

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